The Truth about Nature - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1289 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/03/28 Category Ecology Essay Level High school Tags: Truth Essay Did you like this example? The thing about nature is that it, in comparison to its definition, is always changing. Additionally, nature means something else to everyone. Some people view nature as a window into freedom, while some people see nature as a scary entity that should not be tampered with. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Truth about Nature" essay for you Create order Some think that nature is a source of material while some think that it should be protected at all costs. Though there are altered views on nature across the globe, the fluctuating definition can be tamed towards a single definition by using differing opinions from refutable sources. Sources like that include, but are not limited to, naturalistic writers who have devoted their life to either nature or nature writing. A few of these writers are William Cronon, Chief Seattle, Rick Bass, and Jon Krakauer. Through these authors differing views on nature seen in their individual works of literature, a definition of nature, how it must be treated and maintained, and why it matters can be drawn. Rick Bass, a journalist for the Sierra Magazine wrote a piece of literature in 2001 titled Why I Hunt (Dorbin.) In his opening statement to his writing, he discusses one of the multitudes of reasons why he likes to hunt being all the reaping gained from nature over the year, so his family can survive the winter (Bass 133.) Bass goes on to state his individual definition of nature stating, What heaven is this into which weve fallen? (Bass 134.) Bass views nature as a greater work of art from a higher power designed to give life to humanity alike. William J. Cronon is a professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, who wrote a piece titled The Trouble with Wilderness (Dorbin.) Cronon tells his reader it is time to rethink the definition of Wilderness. He discusses that when nature is viewed by society what they see is the reflection of what they want and desire, not what wilderness realistically means (Cronon 12.) He takes a stance telling the reader that wilderness is not the con tributor to societies problems but instead it is societys view on wilderness. Cronon then goes on to discuss how beautiful nature and wilderness is and how its pleasing traits would continue without the growth of humanity (Cronon 12.) Jon Krakauer takes a slightly different stance on the definition of nature. Krakauer is a contributing editor for a magazine named Outline who also wrote the book Into the Wild, a detailed account of a man named Christopher McCandlesss harsh fate into the Alaskan wilderness (Dorbin.) Krakauer wrote an essay which explains his journey climbing Devils Thumb called The Devils Thumb. In his essay he explains how he gets there and how he survives. He discusses his solo trip and his attempts to hitchhike in cars to get to the summit of the peak. Additionally, he goes into how he must have food delivered by a plane, so he can survive another day of climbing (Krakauer 267.) After an individual reads his essay, they probably would think that he succeeded in his mission. However, Krakauer does not believe he finished his mission. This is because he never reached the highest peak, instead the shorter peak by only a few feet (Krakauer 276.) This leaves his audience thinking that Krakauer believes nature is something that only certain individuals can compete with, while leaving the impression that nature is not an entity that should be altered or agitated. While there are differing views as seen previously in this essay, natures definition deserves more credit than its informal dictionary definition. Nature is a force that should not be tampered, altered, or disgraced. Nature is a haven for those who take care of it. Nature is a giver of life to those who treat it right and nurture it. Ultimately, nature is something that should not be manipulated, however, if nature is treated right, it will treat society kindly. Although, for humanity to start treating nature right, the proper habits need to be adopted so an ethical relationship can be made . In the modern world which society resides, it is difficult to think that habitual changes can be made. There are many environmentalist groups that attempt to alter the habits of humanity, however they have made little to no progress. There are millions of metric tons of plastic floating in the ocean, abundant amounts of methane and ozone in the atmosphere, freighting rising sea levels, ample deforestation rates, and even pollution in space, just to name a few. These habits that are practiced must be changed, nature simply cannot continue to swallow the waste which we produce. The initial step humanity must take is to educate themselves. This can be done through individual research, implemented education in school systems, or making others aware of the issues at hand to encourage people to want to make changes. Individual research and education can include reading stories and reflection essays about peoples healthy interpretation of nature. A writer of this nature includes Chief Seat tle, a Native American Chief of the Suquamish Indian tribe located in the Northwest corridor of the United States, more specifically in Washington state (Dobrin.) The piece of literature published in Sidney I. Dobrins composition by Chief Seattle is a collection of both words written and spoken by Chief Seattle, himself (Dobrin.) In the work The Words of Chief Seattle he discusses how humanity is related to nature. Stating The rivers are our brothers; they quench our thirst. The rivers carry our canoes and feed our children (Seattle 99.) This statement leads into deeper words said by Chief Seattle, This we know: The Earth does not belong to man; man belongs to the Earth. All things are connected. We may be brothers after all. We shall see (Seattle 99.) These statements carry a deeper significance which Chief Seattle was trying to note. Everything on Earth is connected and society must realize this. Humanity must teach their children the correct way to take care of the Earth, their c hildren must teach the next generation, and so on and fourth. the Chief Seattle emphasizes the teaching of proper treatment of nature to the young, since they are the future of the world. Chief Seattle then ties humanities current treatment of nature to a greater power stating One thing we know which the white man may one day discover: our God is the same God. You may not thing that now that you own Him as you wish to own our land; but you cannot. This Earth is precious to Him, and to harm the Earth is to heap contempt on its creator (Seattle 99.) This statement should speak deeply with humanity, especially the religious. Unless a proper, ethical relationship is made with the Earth through means of teaching the young who will eventually run governmental and societal entities, then humanity will continue to mistreat the Earth, more specifically, their creators. Chief Seattles suggestions to revising humanities treatment of nature cut deep into the habits of society. However, people must understand why nature matters if the world ever wants to see a change in the way the Earth is treated. Obviously, the health of the world is important, however people do not understand the depth of the damage done. It is difficult for a single person to travel five miles in any direction and not see a trace of trash. It does not matter where they are, they will inevitably see trash. And even if they did not, they are still breathing in the sickly polluted air. The health of nature matters, there is not a back-up planet humans can escape to in the event of making Earth too toxic to live. Therefore, Earth must be taken care of. It is humanities home and who likes living in a trashed home?

A Journal Without A Beginning - 1483 Words

Introduction â€Å"A journal without a beginning would certainly not be very interesting,† the self-aware Emily Beeler Fletcher noted as she began her first journal on May 11th, 1863. Mrs. Beeler Fletcher would continue to be self-aware as she wrote three other journals that spanned from May 1863 to February 1870. She chastises herself throughout the journals for not writing consistently or in beautiful phrasing. She notes that she started these journals to both improve her writing and to help her remember events that happen in her life. This goal, stated from the beginning, reflects her determination to do everything to the best of her ability for she had a reputation to uphold. This ideology will also inform her philanthropic work during and after the Civil War as a typical higher class woman in Indianapolis. Family Background Emily Beeler was the daughter of Joseph and Hannah Matthews, and her family was wealthy enough for her father to will 160 acres to her. Beeler brought this land with her to her marriage. Emily Beeler married into the already prominent Fletcher family of Indianapolis on September 18th, 1849 when she married Calvin Fletcher Jr. Here journals begin 14 years after her marriage. The couple had five children, two of whom died in infancy. The children’s deaths weighed heavily on Mrs. Fletcher, and she commemorated her son â€Å"Beebee† on his birthday, May 5th, mentioning this day specifically in two journals. She also begins her journals discussing all ofShow MoreRelatedI Am Satisfied With My Writing Skills1665 Words   |  7 Pagesall of the reading assignments that we were given this year. I firmly believe that these journals have significantly improved all of my abilities within the realm of English. I strongly feel well prepared for the AP test, but most importantly for all of my future english classes, and classes in general. The journal experience I had may have been time consuming, but overall it was very positive. 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Running Head Multinational Corporation Free Essays

General motors is a multinational corporation that was begun in 1908 by William Durant.   It has ever since extended its services to several foreign countries including Mexico. It is the world’s largest known company for manufacturing of automobile (Cray Chrome 1980). We will write a custom essay sample on Running Head: Multinational Corporation or any similar topic only for you Order Now Its outstanding business activities in Mexico are among others, provision of high quality Products in order to remain competitive in the global economy.   The leaders in General Motors have also invented business plans that enable them to reduce the costs of the   Intensive engineering, prototyping as well as tooling activities they operates in Mexico (http://www.gm.com)   The General motors management team has established a net working program for hiring new employees so as to facilitate manufacturing and marketing of heir automobiles.   The corporation has also expanded an initiative known as jumpstart in Mexico whose main goals are to indoctrinate those who have been newly hired into the corporations’ culture and to give them a chance of meeting employees in other parts of the corporation so as to get exposed to the corporations’ business leaders (Cray Chrome, 1980).   This ensures smooth running of the business activities since high employee relation is established and maintained. General motors operations on the host country, Mexico, has some comparative advantages. Compared to the US, labor costs in Mexico are much lower and therefore General Motors Corporation stands a good chance in Mexico as opposed to US since it cheaply obtain its parts production. At the same time General Motors Corporation in Mexico does not encounter stiff competition for skills and technology from many automobile companies than it could encounter in the US (Maurice, 1995). This is well explained by the fact that US is believed to gain those jobs that require high skills and technology as it trades with Mexico.   This indicates that most of the scientists and engineers who have the required skills and technology secure jobs in the General motors corporation (Lance Ian 1998). Since it is a well paying and established compensations compared to any other automobile corporation in the country. The environmental issues that prevailed during the on set of the General Motors Corporation in Mexico such as rising costs of health care as well as pension costs really affected rapid growth of the company. General motors however, have worked on these issues through working extensively with the Workers Union on ways for trimming down the health   care costs for the workers their families as well as the retirees (http:delphi.com/about/social/) Although General Motors Corporation in Mexico was well established, it also faced stiff and competitive pressure form the other automobile companies.   This could lead to lower sales than expected by the management and overall economic strain to the company. However, General Motors Company have embarked on innovation ever since and it has expanded computer as well as electronic content on their vehicles (Lorean John, 1980).   It has also extended its recruitment to cover most technologically advanced countries like China, Europe and India hence acquiring high skilled scientists and engineers. There is also the issue of globalization that entirely has benefited the General Motors Corporation.   It has been much easier for the company to get access to the technology that is being developed around the world (Jagdish, 2004). In Defense of Globalization.Oxford University Press.   The different scientists and engineers recruited by the General Motors from diverse cultures influence the culture of the host country, Mexico. The stiff competition brought in by globalization has also made it difficult for the Mexico-based automobile companies to compete in the market especially the small companies (Frederick, 1947) Resolving these issues has serious financial commitment and long-term expenses especially when the high skilled scientists and engineers demand for better salaries. The Acme motors should put in place strong criteria upon which its workers are hired or employed so as to improve and maintain supply of high quality automobiles to its clients. The workers should be able to conduct thorough research and be technologically innovative so as to enable Acme motors compete sufficiently in the global market. References. Cray, E. Chrome C. (1980). General Motors and Its Time. New York: McGraw-Hill. Cray, E. Chrome C. (1980).A History of General Motors. New York: Smithmark   De Lorean John Z. (1980).On a Clear Day You Can See General Motors. London: Sidgwick and Jackson. David M. (2003).What the Market Does to People: Privatization, Globalization, and Poverty.   Clarity Press. Frederick H. (1947). Patterns of Union-Management Relations: United Automobile Workers (CIO), General Motors.Science Research Associates. Jagdish B. (2004). In Defense of Globalization.Oxford. University Press. Maurice E. (1995).Electronic Technology, Corporate Strategy, and World Transformation.Quorum Books. Lance D. Ian M. (1998).Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology.  Ã‚   Routledge. Retrieved on 24th 2008, from http://www.gm.com Retrieved on 24th January 2008 Retrieved on 24th January 2008, from http://delphi.com/about/social/ How to cite Running Head: Multinational Corporation, Essay examples

Cell Energy Worksheet Essay Sample free essay sample

What is cellular respiration and what are its three phases? Cellular respiration is the procedure by which negatrons are transferred between glucose to coenzymes and so to oxygen. NTP is made by the resettlement of negatrons. The terminal consequence of the procedure is the C dioxide and H2O that are released as by-products of the procedure. The three phases are: glycolysis. citric acerb rhythm. and electron conveyance. What is the function of glycolysis? Include the reactants and the merchandises. Where does it happen? Glycolysis is the sugar splitting procedure where the molecule is split in half outside of the chondriosome. The molecule NAD+ picks up negatrons and H atoms from the C molecule and go NADH. ATP is produced from the procedure. every bit good as pyruvic acid. Glycolysis can happen with or without O. With O it is the first phase of the cellular respiration. but if the procedure is done without O it is called agitation. What is the function of the citric acid rhythm? Include the reactants and the merchandises. Where does it happen? The Citric Acid Cycle starts after the glycolysis rhythm produces the ethanoyl group CoA compound. The Coenzyme A is removed and the staying C skeleton is attached to another 4-carbon molecule. The new 6-carbon concatenation releases C dioxide. Two ATP’s are produced during this procedure for each molecule of glucose. The terminal consequence of the citric acid rhythm is 4 CO molecules. 6 NADH molecules. 2 ATP molecules and 2 FADH2 molecules. The procedure is portion of the transition of carbs. fats. and proteins into C dioxide and H2O ; which is useable energy. What is the function of the negatron conveyance system? Include the reactants and the merchandises. Where does it happen? The negatron conveyance is the bringing of negatrons through a concatenation of negatrons in the membrane of the chondriosome. Electrons are transported along the concatenation and as they move along the concatenation they lose energy. The O a individual breathes pulls negatrons from that concatenation and H2O is formed because of it. The energy released relays H ions across the membrane and creates a high H ion country. The H ions speed through the membrane and produces ATP. Photosynthesis: What is the overall end of photosynthesis? Photosynthesis is the procedure through which sunshine and C dioxide is changed into sugar and O for nutrient in workss. The C dioxide is strained into pores in the foliages and into the cells of the works. The cells filter the C dioxide into the chloroplasts. which convert the visible radiation to do C dioxide and H2O into sugar and O. Because photosynthesis merely occurs in workss. why is it indispensable to animal life? Through the nutrient concatenation. animate beings eat works life and addition foods from it for endurance. If certain animate beings couldn’t acquire the nutrient they need. so the animate beings that prey on these works feeders wouldn’t have nutrient either. Plants are indispensable to prolonging life in the nutrient concatenation. Photosynthesis besides helps because O is produced. which is indispensable for most of life on Earth. What is the function of the light reactions? Include the reactants and the merchandises. Where does it happen? The light reactions are the first measure of the photosynthesis procedure by which visible radiation is absorbed into the chloroplasts. Inside the chloroplast. there are flattened sacs called thylakoids. The energy is converted into a chemical energy procedure. The photosystems. which are made of protein and chlorophyll. gaining control light energy and are connected by an negatron conveyance concatenation. The photosystem absorbs the light energy and makes the negatrons super active. The negatrons are replaced by negatrons striped from H2O and create O. The energized negatrons go down the conveyance system and let go of energy that pumps hydrogen ions into the thylakoid. ATP and NADPH are produced and are used to do the sugar in the Calvin rhythm. What is the function of the Calvin rhythm? Include the reactants and the merchandises. Where does it happen? The Calvin rhythm takes topographic point in the thick fluid of the chloroplast called the stroma. Carbon dioxide molecules combine with RuBP molecules. They go through a series of reactions and the sugar molecules. called G3Ps. are rearranged back into RuBPs. G3Ps can be used to construct glucose or sucrose. Both are types of sugars that can be broken down into ATP’s necessary for works growing or other undertakings. The Calvin rhythm is indispensable for sugar creative activity for fuel in the photosynthesis procedure. Summary: Explain how photosynthesis and cellular respiration are linked within ecosystems. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration both generate molecules that are used between procedures. The ecosystems need both procedures because both procedures work together to maintain life traveling. The cellular respiration of organisms exhales C dioxide. which is so used by photosynthesis as a fuel to make the O necessary for life. Visit the NASA web site ( hypertext transfer protocol: //data. Gb. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. gov/gistemp/graphs/ ) and research planetary temperature alterations. How has planetary heating affected overall temperatures? What effects do cellular respiration and photosynthesis have on planetary heating? Global heating is an addition in mean temperatures across the air. surface and oceans around the Earth. When nursery gases trap heat and visible radiation. the temperatures across the Earth rise. The ecosystems are threatened because species of workss and animate beings can’t adapt to the lifting temperatures and stop up deceasing out. There is an addition in CO2 gases and the cellular respiration/photosynthesis processes become imbalanced. For the procedures to work in harmoniousness. both the animate beings that exhale C dioxide and the workss that take the CO2 gas and change over it into O must every bit lend. If the workss die out. the animate beings will non acquire plenty O to last. If a works dies. the animate being that eats it will decease and so will the animate being that preys on that works feeder. The balance between cellular respiration and photosynthesis must be preserved. Mentions: Approximately. com. ( 2012 ) . Cellular Respiration. Retrieved from hypertext transfer protocol: //biology. about. com/od/cellularprocesses/a/cellrespiration. htm BioFlix. ( 2008 ) . hypertext transfer protocol: //media. pearsoncmg. com/bc/bc_0media_bio/bioflix/bioflix. htm? eb4respiration [ Multimedia ] . Retrieved from BioFlix. SCI230 web site. BioFlix. ( 2008 ) . hypertext transfer protocol: //media. pearsoncmg. com/bc/bc_0media_bio/bioflix/bioflix. htm? eb4photosynthesis [ Multimedia ] . Retrieved from BioFlix. SCI230 web site. GISS Surface Temperature Analysis. ( 2012 ) . Retrieved from

Acetaldehyde essays

Acetaldehyde essays The chemical compound ethanal more commonly known as acetaldehyde is an organic compound, which is created by the oxidation of ethanol, the loss of two hydrogen atoms to give a product containing a double bond to the oxygen and a single hydrogen bond. Acetaldehyde has many uses in the industrial world including the manufacturing of rubbers, fuels (which was more urgent in the 1970s), and food flavoring and preservative. The general population is exposed to acetaldehyde in many forms and concentrations. For the most part, acetaldehyde is relatively safe, such as in the use of air deodorizers and flavoring agents. However, it can cause some health hazards with increased exposure of high amounts of it, which normally occurs in agricultural industries and fuel stations. Acetaldehyde is a compound that can be found in yeast- fermented products and as a result of forest fires, feces, and insects. Producing acetaldehyde with no contaminates has been successful to date with the bioconversio n method. This enables the use of acetaldehyde in fruits to increase the natural flavoring and to decrease the fruits astringency in order to have an edible fruit in a shorter amount of time. Acetaldehyde has also proven to be a preservative of vitamins in rice, where in, acetaldehyde acts as a cross link to reinforce the grains internal structure. Acetaldehyde has proven its kindness to the environment. It rapidly volatilizes from water or land into the ground where it can biodegrade. Thus, the attributes acetaldehyde possess gives it the ability to have such a wide variety of purposes from developing rubber and substitute fuels to enhancing the flavoring of one of the food groups and preserving the vitamins and minerals in food needed for the nourishment of a healthy body. ...

10 Ways to Blog Your Book to Increase Sales Without Being Pushy or Annoying (Part 2)

10 Ways to Blog Your Book to Increase Sales Without Being Pushy or Annoying (Part 2) Last week I shared the first half of a list devoted to blog post topics that will let your audience know about your work in authentic and engaging ways. I will finish sharing those post ideas with you today in hopes that you’ll be able to spread the good word about your book and increase your sales without making your family and friends and social media followers want to run the other way. (Click here for Part 1) Let’s jump back in! Book Launch Party One of my favorite parts about promoting my books is planning and executing the book launch party. Making my fictional piece of art an experience for others to encounter feels like literally bringing my story to life. After the party, I often write a post sharing the details and a plethora of pictures. Readers who weren’t able to attend due to conflicting schedules or distance can catch up on all the action and of course buy a book through a clearly provided link. Behind the Scenes Facts   Once your readers have had a chance to experience your story world and come to know your characters, give them some bonus material. Creating a list of behind the scenes facts will make your readers feel like they are getting the inside scoop, and therefore special. When others bring up your book in conversation (in the grocery store, at church, in the breakroom) they will be able to say, â€Å"Did you know†¦?† Word of mouth continues to be the greatest form of advertisement, and this type of blog post will keep the conversation going about your book. Interviews When my friend Silvia’s third installment in her YA Mythology trilogy came out, she spread the word through interviews. You can see three great examples of this type of blog post in action here, here and here. Silvia’s posts appear on a writing coach’s blog, a national children’s writing organization website and a fellow author friend’s blog. Search for guest blog post or interview opportunities that will give you and your book lots of (hopefully new!) eyes. Extras If you have created extra materials to go with your books, like discussion guides for book clubs or educational materials for children’s books, let the world know about them through a blog post. Rochelle Groskreutz, author of Easter Elf, and her publisher KWiL, created this adorable activity kit to go with her debut picture book. Not only is this free product value added to her story, but it is also a valuable addition to her website and will likely drive traffic in her direction. Share Some Wisdom Often you learn a thing or two in the process of writing a book. Write a blog post sharing that hard-earned knowledge with others and win yourself some fans and admirers in the process. These types of posts will also assert you as an expert in the field and therefore a credible and reliable source in the field. My friend Blaine did this recently when he learned a few successful tricks in the persnickety process of scanning, resizing and publishing original art when creating a picture book. He explains his process in this blog post about his book, The Leprechaun Who Lost His Luck. And last, but not least, you can write a post like this one, full of links to previously written content, in an effort to both illustrate a point and further spread the word about your work. Best of luck as you share your stories – both the published ones and the ones behind the scenes – with your audience. (Click here for Part 1)

Competitive positioning strategy and generic recommendations for Essay - 1

Competitive positioning strategy and generic recommendations for management 1042 - Essay Example This is because the Bowman’s strategy close helps companies to identify their unique competitive positioning based on their products or service and the pricing model they want to use with these. In a more practice term, companies are found to gain the best form of advantage with their competitive positioning when they are able to have a tangible competitive positioning action plan. This action plan may be composed of several practical tasks to be performed, including market profiling, customer segments, competitive analysis, among others. The world can now be referred to as a global village for several reasons. One of the most reasons is the fact that businesses can now move very easily from one point to another in attempt to expanding their market presence. But as companies move from one point to the other to do business, it is always important that they will appreciate the fact that there is competition within the places they go, a reason of which they must strategically place themselves in a way that makes them take all needed advantage on the market. Brown (2008) indicated that in any competitive market, the only guarantee for individual companies to succeed is for them to have a competitive advantage that is lasting. But for such an enviable competitive advantage to be developed, it is very important that a company will know what it has within its means and how it is positioned in the larger market that serves as an opportunity for improving its value (Porter, 1996). Baumeister and Leary (2005) noted that customers today are highly enlightened about value creation, a reason for which they would select value as the best force factor for doing business with one company and not the other. This is where competitive positioning becomes an important phenomenon for the companies. This is because competitive positioning has been explained to be the process of identifying a company’s value

Environmental Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Environmental Health - Essay Example The venom that gets passed at the time of the bite is the primary reason that causes the disease and subsequently the venom is transmitted into the blood vessels of the patients bringing about maximum detrimental effects. However, with proper treatment an individual can survive the nastiest of the dog bites along with the killer disease i.e. rabies (Willoughby et al. 2508-2514). According to Knobel et al., near about 99% of all individual deaths as a result of rabies occur in the developing nations and even though useful and reasonable control measures are offered, rabies remains a deserted infection throughout most of the developing nations (360-388). A major aspect in the low rate of rabies control is the deficiency in the availability of accurate data in terms of community health impact of the disease. It is widely accepted that the amount of casualties formally reported greatly undervalues the true occurrence of the disease. Patients may not be present for medical treatments of t he clinically acclaimed fatal disease in time wherein only a few cases obtain laboratory affirmation and moreover clinical cases are regularly not reported by the concerned hospital and medical authorities (Knobel et al. 360-388). According to Wells, an extension of protest against rabies—which has been over shadowed in northern Malaya since a very long time—finally occurred in Kuala Lumpur in the year 1952 (731-42). The outbreak was covered up by the necessary mass immunization of dogs, enactment of tough legislations and severe destruction of stray dogs. Similar measures were being engaged in the recent operations with an aim to eradicate the disease completely. From regular annual incidences... The research paper â€Å"Environmental Health† evaluates that three diseases (i.e. Rabies, Avian flu and West Nile Virus) are considered mortal diseases that are responsible for significant occurrences of deaths of human beings in various countries. According to Willoughby et al., rabies in persons is a mortal disease characterized by harsh encephalopathy and widespread paresis. The primary reason for rabies to occur amid individuals is dog bites. Along with this, bite from a dog can deliver excruciating pain that may result in extensive bleeding and may cause death as well if it is not treated appropriately in time. It is a very severe disease and can lead to circumstances in which a victim may suffer from numerous health-related problems such as abnormal vomiting, headache and weakness. These types of physical disorders can lead to extreme downfall in physical along with mental conditions and can have drastic effects that may deteriorate the health in the long-term. Accordin g to the observation of Nerlich and Halliday, a new 21st century virus that might lead to a fresh disease began in the year 1997 when an ailment called ‘bird ï ¬â€šu’ broke out in Hong Kong and killed human beings by way of infection. This was a new twist in avian ï ¬â€šu, the highly infectious disease. According to reports, a total of eighteen people were infected and around six people died from the outbreak of the disease in Hong Kong. The major reason was close contact with chicken. It is a virus for which human beings do not possess any immunity.

Nursing Dissertation to strengthen the Scientific Foundation

Nursing to strengthen the Scientific Foundation - Dissertation Example 4.2.1 Applications of Complexity Theory to Health Care Delivery 76 4.2.2 Advantages of Complexity Theory Conceptualization of Nursing Best Practice 77 4.2.3 Significance of Complexity Theory Conceptualization of Nursing Best Practice 79 4.2.4 Implications of Complexity Theory Conceptualization of Nursing Best Practice 79 4.3 Complexity Science as the Guiding Framework 81 4.4 Descriptive Overview of Conceptual Model of Nursing Best Practice 82 4.5 Proposed Definition of Key Concepts 82 4.6 Summary 88 Chapter V: Conclusion 89 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Findings of the Study 89 5.3 Implications for Nursing 92 5.4 Conclusion 92 Chapter I: Introduction to the Study 1.1 Introduction This introductory chapter provides a description of the research problem, as well as the rationale, purpose, framework, and the research questions that guided the study. 1.2 The Problem One of the goals of the discipline of nursing is to increase and strengthen the scientific foundation upon which to base clinical practice. The use of research evidence in practice is an accepted way to achieve this goal and in turn can improve nursing care, optimise patient outcomes, and decrease costs (Higgs, Bum, & Jones, 2001; Titler et al., 1994). However, while the requirement to remain current in knowledge and deliver efficient quality patient care has led to an enthusiastic interest in using research evidence in nursing, as a strategy for the fortification of the basis of the science of nursing, little is known about how evidence is actually translated into nursing practice. One strategy that has been suggested for increasing awareness and the use of evidence in nursing practice is revising and updating organisational policy and procedure manuals based on the... The results of this inquiry provide a new theoretical foundation for nursing practice that is qualitatively different from medicine. This research explains how nurses in practice help patients make transitions and move toward future possibilities by merging the art of nursing with the science of nursing. It further makes visible the experience of nurses and reflects on and claims this work as an essential part of professional practice. The study has the potential to challenge the assumptions that underlie nursing's approach to practice, education, theory and research in its challenge to the dominance of scientific over artistic approaches in the practice of nursing. In particular, this work challenges the analytical, problem focused basis of the nursing process and suggests instead that nurses promote transitions in a process akin to narrative structure in the way that assumes standpoints, makes interpretive leaps, brings events to a climax and recognizes closure. In conclusion, science has approached a better understanding of the universe by reducing phenomena into manageable component parts, and the hallmark of research rigor has been the degree to which confounding influences are isolated or controlled. Management strategies have been focused on finding the best way to achieve desirable performance and then exerting control over process and structure in order to maintain the desired organizational or system performance level. The conceptualization of nursing best practice as an emergent property of a complex adaptive healthcare system.

Competency Based Assessments in Education

Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio Competency Based Assessments in Education Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio